Interpretation guideGUIDE-03

No single institution can turn an announced campus into sustained economic compute.

Control is distributed across actors that issue different permissions, contracts, physical inputs and operating evidence. The exact sequence varies by jurisdiction, project structure and the C7–C10 service-model fork.

Executive summary

Read the conclusion before the archive.

  1. Control follows the transition: land, tariff, service, construction, energization and operation are governed by different actors.
  2. The selected service model changes the relevant regulator, utility relationship, document and capacity meaning.
  3. A company statement can establish its own disclosure but cannot substitute for public authority or measured operation.

01 · Core argument

The conversion chain is a sequence of distributed vetoes and permissions.

Institutional control is modular. An actor can control one transition while having no authority to establish the next.

Good analysis identifies the decision right, the controlling instrument and the exact scope of the resulting evidence.

02 · C7–C10 fork

The service model changes the control map.

Retail large-load service, transmission service, generator interconnection, co-location and behind-the-meter structures cannot borrow state or capacity from one another.

Signature model · C7–C10

One state vocabulary, five non-transferable service pathways

Each row requires its own authority, instrument, scope and evidence. A state or capacity measure cannot be borrowed from another row.

  1. R

    Retail large-load service

    Utility · state commission

    1. C7

      Service request

    2. C8

      Accepted utility review

    3. C9

      Tariff or service class

    4. C10

      Executed service obligation

  2. T

    Transmission service

    Transmission provider · RTO/ISO · FERC

    1. C7

      Transmission request

    2. C8

      Accepted system study

    3. C9

      Transmission tariff path

    4. C10

      Executed service obligation

  3. G

    Generator interconnection

    Interconnecting utility · RTO/ISO

    1. C7

      Interconnection request

    2. C8

      Accepted study stage

    3. C9

      Interconnection tariff path

    4. C10

      Executed agreement or obligation

  4. C

    Co-location

    Facility owner · utility · relevant regulator

    1. C7

      Arrangement request

    2. C8

      Technical or regulatory review

    3. C9

      Applicable co-location path

    4. C10

      Executed facility-specific obligation

  5. B

    Behind the meter

    Site owner · utility · local/state authority

    1. C7

      On-site arrangement request

    2. C8

      Engineering or compliance review

    3. C9

      Ownership and service path

    4. C10

      Executed on-site obligations

Reading rule: C7–C10 records process evidence, not inevitable progression. Exact procedures vary by jurisdiction and service model; C10 still does not establish physical delivery or operating load.

CLM-0053

03 · Actor map

Six institutional groups control different links.

The map assigns evidence functions, not blame or credit.

01

Developer and customer

Choose sites, disclose plans, contract for service, finance construction and decide deployment.

Cannot alone establish:public permission, delivered power or measured utilization.

02

Local government and courts

Control land use, permits, incentives, environmental process and judicial review.

Cannot alone establish:grid service, energization or operation.

03

Utility and state commission

Shape retail tariffs, contracts, deposits, cost assignment and service terms.

Cannot alone establish:construction completion or customer use.

04

RTO/ISO and federal regulator

Control transmission procedures, tariff acceptance and regional planning mechanisms.

Cannot alone establish:participant-specific physical delivery.

05

Equipment, construction and finance

Control transformers, generation, cooling, buildings, capital and schedule-critical inputs.

Cannot alone establish:commissioned service or economic output.

06

Operator and customers

Commission infrastructure, install IT, run clusters and create customer-use and economic evidence.

Public limitation:downstream observations are often least standardized.

04 · Permission stack

Ask three questions at every transition.

The same discipline applies whether the governing actor is public, private or mixed.

  1. 01

    Who holds the decision right?

    Name the institution or counterparty that can approve, condition, fund, deliver, commission or observe the transition.

  2. 02

    Which instrument records the decision?

    Use the order, tariff, agreement, permit, construction filing, operating statement or measured disclosure suited to that state.

  3. 03

    What does the instrument not establish?

    Publish the ceiling before using the event as evidence for a later link.

Decision boundary

Institutional attribution must remain transition-specific.

Permitted conclusion

Attribute a state or constraint to the actor and instrument that directly control or document that transition.

Prohibited stronger claim

Do not assign the entire chain, its timing or its outcome to one company, regulator, utility or court without evidence bridging the remaining links.

Quantitative ceiling
A regional rule or portfolio disclosure is not participant-specific capacity.
Causal ceiling
Control of one decision does not prove sole causation of the final outcome.

05 · Claim register

Institutional findings and their ceilings.

Every Claim ceiling and set of Linked sources remains inspectable.

CLM-0207 · interpretation

The case portfolio supports a modular permission stack controlled by different actors; no single regulator, utility, company or locality controls the full conversion chain.

Claim ceiling
Portfolio-level institutional finding; does not establish identical sequencing in every jurisdiction.
Evidence
Tier A · HIGH mechanism
Locator
Federal, RTO, state commission, court and project records

CLM-0053 · interpretation

No single U.S. “grid interconnection” state applies to all large loads: retail load service/interconnection, transmission service, generator interconnection, co-location, and behind-the-meter arrangements use different actors, instruments, studies, and jurisdictional pathways.

Claim ceiling
Pathway distinction only; no single source establishes a nationally uniform process.
Evidence
Tier A-minus · HIGH
Locator
FERC RM26-4 overview; FERC PJM order summary; MISO current-rules page; CAISO issue paper pp. 3-8; PJM pathway presentations

CLM-0020 · legal status

Ohio, Georgia, and Virginia have public regulatory records creating or approving large-load/data-center-specific rate or contract pathways, but their terms, procedural finality, and risk allocation differ and cannot be collapsed into one regime.

Claim ceiling
Existence and heterogeneity only; no conclusion that any regime fully protects ratepayers.
Evidence
Tier A · HIGH for existence; MEDIUM pending full tariff extraction
Locator
Ohio 24-508-EL-ATA and appeal 2025-1458; Georgia >100 MW summary/dockets; Virginia PUR-2025-00058/GS-5

CLM-0026 · implementation

Local land-use, water, and incentive records in Loudoun County, Prince William County, and Hillsboro demonstrate independently observable permission layers that cannot establish grid service or operation by themselves.

Claim ceiling
Source-universe/permission-layer finding only.
Evidence
Tier A · HIGH for source-layer distinction; LOW for unextracted project status
Locator
Named local-government pages and process records

CLM-0011 · interpretation

NERC’s March 2026 assessment identified gaps across interconnection, planning/resource adequacy, balancing/operations, ride-through/stability/power quality, security, resilience/event analysis, and load modeling.

Claim ceiling
NERC’s identified gap categories; not proof that every region lacks controls.
Evidence
Tier A · HIGH
Locator
Executive Summary p. vi
Linked sources
SRC-0015

CLM-0186 · interpretation

Financing capacity is a distinct permission link: several companies disclose debt, equity, joint-venture, restricted-cash or asset-level financing dependencies that may accelerate or constrain infrastructure deployment.

Claim ceiling
Financing availability does not establish construction completion or operating capacity.
Evidence
Tier A · HIGH mechanism / company-specific outcomes vary
Locator
Financing and liquidity sections

CLM-0205 · interpretation

At least five rival theses win materially across the selected portfolio: forecast inflation/screening, policy and data uncertainty, partial private-risk allocation, local veto/process risk and demand-quality limits.

Claim ceiling
Rival wins are mechanism-specific and do not generalize to all U.S. projects.
Evidence
Tier A · HIGH for bounded portfolio findings
Locator
Selected case evidence and PASS_08_RIVAL_WIN_REGISTER.csv

Mechanisms that resist a single-controller explanation

CTR-0003 · Flexible-load response

Some computational loads may curtail, shift, or accept conditional service, reducing some system constraints.

Evidence result:FERC identifies flexible crypto-mining behavior as illustrative; SPP filed conditional HILL service; Virginia convened a flexibility record. Transferability to AI loads is unproven.

Ceiling effect:Possible mechanism only; not universal capability or solved reliability risk.

CTR-0004 · Private-risk allocation

Tariffs, collateral, minimum bills, contract terms, and exit provisions may shift material risk to large-load customers.

Evidence result:Ohio, Georgia, and Virginia records establish differentiated large-load rate/contract pathways, while consumer/intervenor records contest adequacy and legal status varies.

Ceiling effect:No claim that risk is fully shifted or ratepayers fully protected.

CTR-0005 · Local-benefit case

Data-center projects may provide tax base, infrastructure, and other public benefits that offset some costs.

Evidence result:Local incentive and development records are available in Hillsboro and Virginia, but audited net outcomes are not yet extracted.

Ceiling effect:Benefits and costs must be separately measured; no net-benefit conclusion.

CTR-0063 · Local veto and process risk

Prior local approval can be invalidated for process defects and remain uncertain during further appeal.

Evidence result:Virginia intermediate appellate opinion held three Digital Gateway rezonings void ab initio; appeal remains pending.

Ceiling effect:C21 legal state; not final cancellation.

CTR-0064 · Forecast inflation / private-risk allocation

Georgia’s framework and pipeline can both screen risk; disputed pipeline quantities may be revised as projects fail maturity tests.

Evidence result:The Commission adopted large-load protections; a docket participant identified removals and uncertainty. The latter remains party evidence.

Ceiling effect:Framework and uncertainty established; correct forecast not adjudicated here.

06 · Maintenance

Events that can reallocate or clarify control.

Changes in tariffs, orders, contracts, legal status or operating disclosure can move a transition to a different actor or instrument.

Events that could reallocate or clarify control

  • OIR-0006 · NERC changes the guideline, closes the alert, advances Project 2026-02, changes registration, or FERC approves a standard.

    Required update: Version-control document; distinguish voluntary from mandatory; update exact obligations and effective dates.

  • OIR-0007 · Ohio appeal resolves, or Ohio/Georgia/Virginia tariffs/contracts are modified, stayed, superseded, or implemented through new sheets/orders.

    Required update: Retrieve final holdings/effective sheets; record customer obligations, conditions, supersession, and legal finality.

  • OIR-0011 · Selected localities issue new zoning, permit, water, incentive, appeal, or litigation records.

    Required update: Update application/permit/agreement state, conditions, appeal, capacity basis, and project crosswalk.

  • OIR-0046 · A later periodic filing materially changes company capex, backlog, financing, power, project timing or utilization disclosures used in Pass 07.

    Required update: Inspect new 10-Q/10-K and record only material evidence deltas; do not refresh unchanged metrics each pass.

  • OIR-0056 · New cross-case evidence materially changes a rival win or adaptation outcome.

    Required update: Update only affected case and preserve mechanism/outcome distinction.

Record navigation

These records share claims or sources with this report. The linkage supports navigation, not a causal inference.

Bibliography and exact locators

  1. SRC-0003 — Interconnection of Large Loads to the Interstate Transmission System (Docket No. RM26-4-000)

    Federal Energy Regulatory Commission · 2026-01-13 · Tier A

    Locator: Docket landing page; At a Glance; RM26-4-000; official page rechecked in Pass 09

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  2. SRC-0083 — Summaries — April 2026 Commission Meeting, Item E-1 ER26-1088-000

    Federal Energy Regulatory Commission · 2026-04-16 · Tier A

    Locator: Item E-1, ER26-1088-000; order on compliance and directing further compliance

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  3. SRC-0114 — SCC Data Center Initiatives — Facts and Figures

    Virginia State Corporation Commission · 2026-02 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: pp. 1-2: 14-year obligation, 85% T&D minimum, up to 60% collateral, alternative cost-allocation filings

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  4. SRC-0120 — Digital Gateway rezoning appeals opinion

    Court of Appeals of Virginia · 2026-03-31 · Tier A

    Locator: Opinion pp. 4–5 and 52–53; records identified in Pass 05

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  5. SRC-0165 — Order Accepting Tariff Revisions, Subject to Condition — Conditional High Impact Large Load Service

    Federal Energy Regulatory Commission · 2026-06-05 · Tier A

    Locator: 195 FERC ¶ 61,196; paras. 6–7, 104–105; ordering paras. A–B; effective July 1, 2026

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  6. SRC-0010 — FERC Directs PJM to Create New Rules for Co-Located Large Loads

    Federal Energy Regulatory Commission · 2025-12-18 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Docket EL25-49-000; official order summary

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  7. SRC-0085 — Market Participation and Registration of Co-Located Load and Generation Behind the Same POI

    Midcontinent Independent System Operator · 2026-04-24 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Current-rules and issue-status sections; last modified 2026-04-24

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  8. SRC-0087 — Generator Interconnection

    Midcontinent Independent System Operator · CURRENT PAGE AT CUTOFF · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Process description and interconnection-agreement outcome

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  9. SRC-0088 — Large Loads

    California Independent System Operator · 2026-01-20 / current page at cutoff · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Roles in load interconnection, transmission planning, and generator interconnection

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  10. SRC-0089 — Large Loads Interconnection and Energization — Issue Paper

    California Independent System Operator · 2026-01-20 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: PDF pp. 3-8 and 15-16

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  11. SRC-0097 — Large Load Additions Workshop — Presentation

    PJM Interconnection · 2025-05-09 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Pathway distinctions for network load, co-location and behind-the-meter generation

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  12. SRC-0098 — Large Load Additions Pre-CIFP Education — PJM Presentation

    PJM Interconnection · 2025-09-02 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Educational description of large-load additions and study interfaces

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  13. SRC-0025 — Electricity Rate Designs for Large Loads: Evolving Practices and Opportunities

    Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory · 2025-01-01 · Tier B

    Locator: Rate-design taxonomy and examples

    PUBLIC NATIONAL-LAB/TECHNICAL RECORD

  14. SRC-0041 — Data Centers — Ohio PUCO Resource Page

    Public Utilities Commission of Ohio · 2025-07-09 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Case links and tariff resources

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  15. SRC-0042 — PUCO Orders AEP Ohio to Create Data Center-Specific Tariff

    Public Utilities Commission of Ohio · 2025-07-09 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Case 24-508-EL-ATA; official summary

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  16. SRC-0043 — Data Center Costs — Case 24-0508-EL-ATA

    Office of the Ohio Consumers' Counsel · 2025-07-01 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Consumer-agency case summary and filings

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  17. SRC-0044 — Merit Brief, Supreme Court of Ohio Case 2025-1458

    Supreme Court of Ohio / appellant · 2026-02-02 · Tier A

    Locator: Case 2025-1458; appellant merit brief; docket status

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  18. SRC-0045 — Georgia PSC Adopts Rules for Data Centers Over 100 MW

    Georgia Public Service Commission · 2025-01-23 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: p. 1; >100 MW threshold; contract/minimum-bill/cost provisions

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  19. SRC-0046 — Georgia Data Center Fact Sheet

    Georgia Public Service Commission · 2026-03-01 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: p. 1 chronology and summary

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  20. SRC-0047 — Georgia PSC Docket 55378

    Georgia Public Service Commission · 2025-01-01 · Tier A

    Locator: Docket index and filings

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  21. SRC-0048 — Georgia PSC Docket 44280

    Georgia Public Service Commission · 2025-01-01 · Tier A

    Locator: Docket index; large-load contracts/filings

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  22. SRC-0049 — SCC Issues Order in Dominion Energy Virginia Biennial Review

    Virginia State Corporation Commission · 2025-11-25 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: PUR-2025-00058; separate rate class

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  23. SRC-0050 — Virginia SCC Data Center Initiatives

    Virginia State Corporation Commission · 2026-02-01 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: p. 2; GS-5 and initiatives

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  24. SRC-0053 — Data Center Standards & Locations

    Loudoun County, Virginia · 2025-03-18 · Tier A

    Locator: Adopted standards and location controls

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  25. SRC-0054 — Phase 2 Data Center Standards & Locations

    Loudoun County, Virginia · 2026-01-01 · Tier A

    Locator: Project milestones/status

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  26. SRC-0055 — PW Digital Gateway

    Prince William County, Virginia · 2025-01-01 · Tier A

    Locator: Planning record and linked approvals

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  27. SRC-0056 — Data Centers in Hillsboro

    City of Hillsboro, Oregon · 2026-01-01 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: City overview and links

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  28. SRC-0057 — Hillsboro Shares Data Center Water Use Information

    City of Hillsboro, Oregon · 2026-04-13 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Water-use disclosure and definitions

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  29. SRC-0058 — Hillsboro Enterprise Zone Agreements Update

    City of Hillsboro, Oregon · 2026-05-08 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Agreement and moratorium update

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  30. SRC-0059 — Hillsboro Data Center Work Session Updates

    City of Hillsboro, Oregon · 2026-06-02 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: June 2026 work-session links

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  31. SRC-0015 — Assessment of Gaps in Existing Practices, Requirements, and Standards for Emerging Large Loads

    North American Electric Reliability Corporation · 2026-03-01 · Tier A

    Locator: Executive Summary p. vi; gap categories

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  32. SRC-0154 — Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for quarter ended February 28, 2026

    Oracle Corporation · 2026-03-10 · Tier A

    Locator: Lines 1666–1670, 2948, 6529–6756; RPO, power obligations, capex and financing

    PUBLIC COMPANY/SEC RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  33. SRC-0155 — CoreWeave, Inc. — Annual Report on Form 10-K for year ended December 31, 2025

    CoreWeave, Inc. · 2026-02-27 · Tier A

    Locator: Lines 330–351; 3001–3041; active and contracted power, RPO, take-or-pay contracts, concentration and financing

    PUBLIC COMPANY/SEC RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  34. SRC-0157 — Equinix, Inc. — Annual Report on Form 10-K for year ended December 31, 2025

    Equinix, Inc. · 2026-02-13 · Tier A

    Locator: Lines 350–384; 1044–1045; 1553–1571; 1736–1756; 2191–2198; 5739; 6154–6167

    PUBLIC COMPANY/SEC RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  35. SRC-0159 — American Electric Power Company, Inc. — Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for quarter ended March 31, 2026

    American Electric Power Company, Inc. · 2026-04-29 · Tier A

    Locator: Form 10-Q; large-load proposals and regulatory proceedings; pending proposals in Michigan, Oklahoma, Texas and Virginia

    PUBLIC COMPANY/SEC RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  36. SRC-0160 — Dominion Energy, Inc. — Annual Report on Form 10-K for year ended December 31, 2025

    Dominion Energy, Inc. · 2026-02-20 · Tier A

    Locator: PJM DOM Zone load-growth disclosure; Virginia regulated utility planning and capital-risk sections

    PUBLIC COMPANY/SEC RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  37. SRC-0006 — Sunshine Notice — June 2026 Commission Meeting

    Federal Energy Regulatory Commission · 2026-06-11 · Tier A

    Locator: Agenda Item E-1; RM26-4-000

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  38. SRC-0038 — ERCOT Large Load Update — House State Affairs Hearing

    Electric Reliability Council of Texas · 2026-04-09 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Aggregate request total and composition slides

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  39. SRC-0168 — Public-interest intervenor filing concerning Georgia Power large-load forecast and pipeline

    Georgia PSC public docket participant filing · 2025-12-16 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: PDF pp. 6–10 and 17; discusses 14,345 MW removal, pipeline screening, contract uncertainty and flexibility assumptions

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  40. SRC-0066 — Crusoe Announces Flagship Abilene Data Center is Live

    Crusoe · 2025-09-30 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Construction began June 2024; first two buildings energized; first racks June 2025; early training and inference workloads running

    PUBLIC COMPANY/SEC RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  41. SRC-0012 — 2025 State of the Markets Report

    Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Office of Enforcement · 2026-03-26 · Tier A

    Locator: PDF pp. 9–10 (report pp. 7–8), Figure 5 and note 14; other market-review figures as separately cited

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  42. SRC-0036 — SPP Conditional High Impact Large Load Service Filing

    Southwest Power Pool · 2026-02-10 · Tier A

    Locator: ER26-1323-000; proposed conditional service terms

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  43. SRC-0051 — Technical Conference on Data Center Load Flexibility

    Virginia State Corporation Commission · 2025-10-24 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Conference scope/date

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  44. SRC-0121 — Virginia appeals list associated with Digital Gateway records

    Virginia appellate courts · 2026-06-02 · Tier A

    Locator: Appeals list p. 1

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  45. SRC-0100 — Order Approving Georgia Power Rules and Regulations Changes for Large Customers

    Georgia Public Service Commission · 2025-01-28 · Tier A

    Locator: Docket 44280, Document 221165, pp. 1-3; ordering paragraphs on implementation, contract filing, compliance tariff, continuing jurisdiction

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE

  46. SRC-0169 — 147th Annual Report — Georgia Public Service Commission

    Georgia Public Service Commission · 2026-05-12 · Tier A-minus

    Locator: Data-center/large-load rule discussion; >100 MW customers; minimum billing, longer terms and pre-execution contract filing; 2025 activity summary

    PUBLIC OFFICIAL RECORD — CITE/SUMMARIZE